The following resource provides background on the housing outcomes presented in the toolkit. These outcomes reflect the focus of Enterprise Community Partners — a national nonprofit organization that improves communities and people’s lives by making well- designed homes affordable — and their work to measure impact in the housing sector. Housing indicators are included within each housing outcome. Each indicator includes a brief description, examples of interventions used to address that outcome, a discussion of the connection to education and sample metrics. It is important to note that the metrics are examples and are not exhaustive of all relevant metrics for each outcome. When measuring impact, it is critical to look at data disaggregated by race to help identify racial or other disparities whenever possible.
HOUSING OUTCOME: HOUSING STABILITY
Housing stability refers to the ability of residents to live in their home for as long as they choose, without being forced to move because of cost, eviction or other unwanted reason. Having a stable home eliminates material hardships and expenses related to moving and affects an individual’s ability to obtain and maintain employment and remain productive at work and school.
Common Indicators of Housing Stability Include: Expand AllCollapse All
Reduction in Homelessness
Description: Homelessness refers to an individual’s or household’s ability to remain stably housed, with a “fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence.”1 The experience of homelessness is challenging to endure and can result in negative long-term outcomes, particularly for children and youth. Individuals experiencing homelessness are more likely to suffer from mental and physical health challenges, in addition to facing barriers to obtaining and maintaining employment.
Examples of Interventions: Access to affordable, subsidized housing is critical for preventing and alleviating homelessness. For more information on affordable housing, see the Housing 101 in Appendix A. Homelessness rates increase when individuals and families are unable to access affordable housing. Some affordable housing, often referred to as Permanent Supportive Housing, is designated specifically for individuals and families coming out of homelessness and offers residents services and supports. Research has found that long-term rent subsidies for families exiting homelessness are associated with positive child outcomes, whereas short-term subsidies have no significant effect, signaling the importance of consistent and committed funding for affordable housing.2
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Number of people who are homeless on a single night within a particular geographic area |
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The number of people who seek/receive homeless services during the course of a month |
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The number of students experiencing homelessness within a particular school or school district |
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1 U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH), Key Federal Terms and Definitions of Homelessness Among Youth (Washington, DC: USICH, February 2018), https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/Federal-Definitions-of-Youth-Homelessness.pdf.
2 Gubits, D., M. Shinn, M. Wood, S. R. Brown, S. R. Dastrup, and S. H. Bell, “What Interventions Work Best for Families Who Experience Homelessness? Impact Estimates from the Family Options Study,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 37, no. 4 (2018): 835–866, doi:10.1002/pam.22071, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pam.22071.
3 Buckner, J. C., “Understanding the Impact of Homelessness on Children: Challenges and Future Research Directions,” American Behavioral Scientist 51, no. 6 (2008): 721–736,https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764207311984.
4 Obradovic, J., J. Long, J. Cutuli, C.-K. Chan, E. Hinz, D. Heistad, and A. S. Masten, “Academic Achievement of Homeless and Highly Mobile Children in an Urban School District: Longitudinal Evidence on Risk, Growth, and Resilience,” Development and Psychopathology 21, no. 2 (2009): 493–518, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/academic-achievement-of-homeless-and-highly-mobile-children-in-an-urban-school-district-longitudinal-evidence-on-risk-growth-and-resilience/104325993972A5A7C9907EE9D7DFEE64.
5 Fischer, Will, Research Shows Housing Vouchers Reduce Hardship and Provide Platform for Long-Term Gains Among Children (Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities [CBPP], Updated October 7, 2015), https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/research-shows-housing-vouchers-reduce-hardship-and-provide-platform-for-long-term.
6 Freeman, Lance, and Darrick Hamilton, A Count of Homeless Youth in New York (New York: Empire State Coalition of Youth and Family Services, 2008).
7 Freeman and Hamilton, A Count of Homeless Youth in New York.
Multiyear Stability
Description: Multiyear stability refers to an individual’s or family’s ability to live in their home for as long as they choose, without being forced to move because of cost, eviction or other unwanted reason. Stability over time is important, particularly for children, because frequent moves can have a detrimental effect on health, education, employment and overall well-being, as noted above.
Examples of Interventions: The provision of stable, affordable housing is an important mechanism for preventing unwanted moves. This is true particularly for the preservation and production of affordable housing in locations that provide access to employment centers, quality schools, and other community resources and amenities. Eviction protection measures are another important policy and programmatic intervention to help prevent instability and are explored in greater detail in the next housing outcome, Reduction in Evictions.
Connection to Education: When children have a stable home and school, they experience a sense of belonging that has been shown to improve grades. This is true particularly for lower-income students of color.8 Research has demonstrated strong links between housing stability and children’s physical and mental health, as well as school attendance.9 Housing instability and frequent moves often are associated with changing schools, which has been found to have adverse effects on academic performance. For example, students who change schools frequently have been found to lag behind their peers by a year or more in reading and math.10 Additionally, when children in lower-income households experience frequent school moves, they tend to obtain jobs with lower wages as adults.11
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Student turnover within a particular school or district |
•Local educational agency, school or district |
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Change of address in student school records |
•Local educational agency, school or district |
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Presence of rental/tenant rights policies |
•Local laws and regulations |
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Rent control and stabilization policies |
•Local policies |
8 Walton, G. M., and G. L. Cohen, G. L., “A Question of Belonging: Race, Social Fit, and Achievement,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92, no. 1 (2007): 82–96, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82, https://content.apa.org/record/2006-23056-007.
9 Gubits et al., “What Interventions Work Best for Families?” doi:10.1002/pam.22071.
10 Cunningham, Mary, and Graham MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education Among Low-Income Children (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, 2012), https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF; and Grigg, J., “School Enrollment Changes and Student Achievement Growth: A Case Study in Educational Continuity,” Sociology of Education, 85, no. 4 (2012): 388–404, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0038040712441374.
11 Herbers, J., A. Reynolds, and C.-C. Chen, “School Mobility and Developmental Outcomes in Young Adulthood,” Development and Psychopathology 25, no. 2 (2013): 501–515, doi:10.1017/S0954579412001204, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236579772_School_Mobility_and_Developmental_Outcomes_in_Young_Adulthood.
Reduction in Evictions
Description: An eviction is an involuntary move that is initiated when a landlord expels a renter or renters from a property. A primary cause of eviction is when renters cannot or do not pay their rent, although renters may be evicted for other reasons, including a landlord’s decision to terminate a lease or a renter’s violation of laws or rental agreements. In particular, families with low incomes and severe cost burden (paying more than 50 percent of their income toward housing) are vulnerable to eviction, which can come as a sudden disruption and traumatic experience for children and adults alike.
Examples of Interventions: As mentioned, eviction protection measures are an important policy and programmatic intervention to help prevent instability. These measures may include policies and laws that support tenants’ rights, legal services for families with low incomes, or programs that offer cash assistance to households that have experienced a sudden job loss or health care costs that threaten their ability to make housing payments. Eviction protection measures often focus on housing that is affordable but not subsidized and, therefore, is not under the regulation and compliance of a state, federal or local housing program. More broadly, the provision of subsidized, affordable housing is another important way to help stabilize households and end the cycle of eviction. This is explored in more depth in the previously described housing outcome, Multiyear Stability.
Connection to Education: Eviction leads to immediate housing instability and, in some cases, to homelessness. Heightening the trauma of a sudden move, eviction typically leads to further financial instability. Research has shown that workers who experience an eviction are 15 percent more likely to be laid off, and many evicted households lose their possessions in the process.12 These circumstances create long- lasting negative outcomes for children and families, as housing instability often is tied to school changes, absenteeism, behavioral problems and an overall decline in academic performance.13
After experiencing housing instability, households often are forced to move into communities with fewer resources, including fewer employment opportunities, which can worsen economic hardship and instability.14 Such communities often have lower-performing schools with fewer resources than schools in affluent areas, primarily because of racial segregation and school funding mechanisms that rely on the local tax base to generate revenue for schools. With a smaller tax base, neighborhoods with fewer resources and the children who live in them are at a disadvantage, exacerbating disparities in academic performance for children experiencing housing instability and eviction.|
EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Eviction rates |
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Change of address in student school records |
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Presence of rental/tenant rights policies |
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Rent control and stabilization policies |
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13 National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. 2010. Student Mobility: Exploring the Impacts of Frequent Moves on Achievement: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12853/student-mobility-exploring-the-impacts-of-frequent-moves-on-achievement.
12 Desmond, Matthew, Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City (New York: Broadway Books, 2016).
14 Desmond, Evicted.
HOUSING OUTCOME: HOUSING QUALITY
Housing quality that protects and promotes health is free of major defects. Poor housing quality has been linked to worse health outcomes for children, which, in turn, affects their physical and mental development, academic performance, and long-term educational outcomes.
Common Indicators of Housing Quality Include: Expand AllCollapse All
Access to Safe and Healthy Housing
Description: Safe and healthy housing is free of major defects, including unregulated temperatures and lack of insulation, water leaks, exposed wiring, mold or mildew, broken windows or doors, or missing safety features (e.g., fire extinguishers and carbon monoxide detectors). The presence of pests — such as mice, cockroaches and rats — also contributes to unhealthy living conditions. These conditions can have a significant negative effect on resident health and well-being. One study found that cost-burdened households paying more than 30 percent of their income toward housing are more likely to live in substandard, low-quality and overcrowded housing.15
Examples of Interventions: Affordable housing and other housing subsidies can create opportunities for low-income households to live in higher quality housing that meets building standards and promotes health. The Enterprise Green Communities Criteria is a nationally recognized standard for green building practices in affordable housing that promote resident health and well-being and environmental sustainability. The Criteria provide a range of strategies for maximizing positive health outcomes, such as choosing a well-located site, reducing environmental hazards or toxins, and optimizing ventilation.
Connection to Education: Research has shown that poor-quality housing leads to worse health outcomes for children, affecting a child’s physical and mental development, as well as their academic performance and long-term educational outcomes.16 One research study found that children who lived in low-quality housing had lower kindergarten readiness scores.17 In contrast, research has shown that healthy children have better school attendance rates, a key indicator of academic success, and improved attention in school compared to their less-healthy peers.18
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Number of housing code violations |
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Number of families living in deeply distressed or substandard housing |
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Condition of affordable housing properties owned or subsidized by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), including public housing) |
17 Coulton, Claudia, Robert Fischer, Francisca García-Cobián, Richter Seok-Joo Kim, and Youngmin Cho, Housing Crisis Leaves Lasting Imprint on Children in Cleveland (Chicago: MacArthur Foundation, How Housing Matters, 2016), https://www.macfound.org/media/files/HHM_Brief_-_Housing_Crisis_Children_in_Cleveland.pdf.
15 Cohen, Rebecca, Keith Wardrip, and Laura Williams, Rental Housing Affordability — A Review of Current Research (New York: The Center for Housing Policy, 2010).
18 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF.
Reduced Exposure to Environmental Toxins
Description: Exposure to environmental toxins can come from a variety of sources, both inside the home and in the neighborhood. Environmental toxins include radon, lead and air pollution, among many others. Although the federal government banned consumer use of lead-based paint in 1978, the risk of exposure in older buildings still is present. Pests like mice, rats and cockroaches also contribute to unhealthy living conditions, as does housing with serious defects, such as exposed wiring, mold or mildew, and broken or nonfunctioning amenities. Racial segregation and the inequitable allocation of resources between neighborhoods often lead to greater exposure to environmental hazards for children living in areas with more residents of color, including proximity to waste facilities, industrial areas, or major highways or thoroughfares.19
Examples of Interventions: Many green building standards provide recommendations for reducing exposure to environmental toxins within the home, including the Enterprise Green Communities Criteria described in the previous outcome. The Criteria provide strategies for mitigating the risk of radon exposure, reducing lead hazards in buildings constructed before 1978, improving in-home ventilation, and other strategies to reduce exposure to environmental toxins. Broadly speaking, housing assistance also creates opportunities for individuals and families to live in housing that promotes health. In fact, children living in assisted housing have been shown to have lower blood lead levels than do children in eligible families who did not receive housing assistance.20
Connection to Education: As noted, exposure to environmental toxins can have severe and long-lasting health impacts for children. Young children exposed to lead dust face significant risks to their IQ and challenges in learning, both of which affect education outcomes. Although most studies looking at the connection between poor housing quality and educational outcomes prove correlation as opposed to causation, research shows that living conditions are related to poor school performance.21 Substandard living conditions contribute to high rates of asthma, worse sleep quality, and an increased likelihood of heart and respiratory problems, as well as poor mental health.22 In turn, poor health is tied to higher rates of absenteeism and poor academic performance.23 In fact, one study found that living in low-quality housing is tied to lower kindergarten readiness scores and a higher incidence of child abuse and neglect.24
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Proximity to environmental hazards (e.g., Brownfield sites) in a neighborhood |
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Air quality |
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Social vulnerability to environmental hazards |
19 Abdi, Fadumo M., and Kristine Andrews, “Redlining Has Left Many Communities of Color Exposed to Lead,” Child Trends, February 13, 2018, https://www.childtrends.org/redlining-left-many-communities-color-exposed-lead.
21 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education.
20 Ahrens, K., B. Haley, L. Rossen, P. Lloyd, and Y. Aoki, “Housing Assistance and Blood Lead Levels: Children in the United States, 2005–2012,” American Journal of Public Health 106, no. 11 (2016): 2049–2056, doi:10.2105/AJPH.2016.303432.
23 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF.
22 Williamson, I., C. Martin, G. McGill, R. Monie, and A. Fennerty, “Damp Housing and Asthma: A Case-Control Study,” Thorax 52, no. 3 (1997): 229–234, doi:10.1136%2Fthx.52.3.229; Howell, E., L. Harris, and S. Popkin, “The Health Status of HOPE VI Public Housing Residents,” Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 16, no. 2 (2005): 273–285, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15937391; Chambers, E., M. Pichardo, and E. Rosenbaum, “Sleep and the Housing and Neighborhood Environment of Urban Latino Adults Living in Low-Income Housing: The AHOME Study,” Behavioral Sleep Medicine 14, no. 2 (2014): 169–184, doi:10.1080/15402002.2014. 974180; Collins, K. J., “Low Indoor Temperatures and Morbidity in the Elderly,” Age and Ageing 15, no. 4 (1986): 212–220, doi:10.1093/ageing/15.4.212; and Rollings, K., N. Wells, G. Evans, A. Bednarz, and Y. Yang, “Housing and Neighborhood Physical Quality: Children’s Mental Health and Motivation,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 50 (2017): 17–23, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.01.004.
24 Coulton et al., Housing Crisis Leaves Lasting Imprint, https://www.macfound.org/media/files/HHM_Brief_-_Housing_Crisis_Children_in_Cleveland.pdf.
HOUSING OUTCOME: HOUSING AFFORDABILITY
Housing affordability is defined as paying no more than 30 percent of a household’s income toward housing costs each month. Families who pay more than 30 percent of their income toward housing are considered to be “housing cost burdened” and have been shown to spend less money on food and educational enrichment activities that support healthy child development.
Common Indicators of Housing Affordability Include: Expand AllCollapse All
Lack of Cost Burden
Description: For households with low incomes, housing cost burden is particularly challenging. With few financial resources left after paying for housing, households that are cost burdened must make difficult trade-offs, such as sacrificing food, health care or other necessities. These trade-offs can affect health, educational attainment, professional advancement and overall economic well-being. 25 Housing cost-burdened households are more likely to experience other negative outcomes, as well, including making frequent moves, living in substandard housing and being confined to high-poverty neighborhoods. Each of these additional negative outcomes then deepens the health, economic and educational risks that result from housing cost burden. 26
Examples of Interventions: The provision of affordable housing is a primary strategy for addressing housing cost burden among low-income households. When housing costs are limited to 30 percent of household income, residents of affordable housing are better prepared to afford other important household needs. Studies have shown that long-term housing assistance lessens psychological and economic distress for parents while improving food security and educational outcomes for children. 27
Connection to Education: As is the case with housing instability and frequent moves, children living in cost-burdened households often struggle in school. Studies show that these children are more likely than their peers to be held back and to exhibit behavioral problems. 28 These challenges can extend beyond K–12 schooling, because living in a cost-burdened household has been shown to decrease the pursuit and completion of a post-secondary degree. 29 In contrast, long-term housing assistance correlates with fewer school moves and better long-term educational outcomes for children.30 Studies confirm that growing up in subsidized housing, public housing and voucher-assisted housing is associated positively with increased annual adult earnings. 31
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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The number and percentage of families who spend more than 30% of their income on housing (total for a geographic area and disaggregated by race) |
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The number and percentage of families who spend more than 50% of their income on housing (total for a geographic area and disaggregated by race) |
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Cost of housing by census tract (average gross rent) |
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Percentage of renter households that receive housing choice vouchers |
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Percentage of renter households that receive project-based housing assistance |
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Percentage of all low-income households that are severely cost burdened |
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Percentage of renter households that receive housing assistance in a census tract |
25 Galvez, Martha, Maya Brennan, Brady Mexell, and Rolf Pendall, Housing as a Safety Net: Ensuring Housing Security for the Most Vulnerable (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, September 30, 2017), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/housing-safety-net; Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University (JCHS), America’s Rental Housing: The Key to a Balanced National Policy (Cambridge: JCHS, 2008), https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/research-areas/reports/americas-rental-housing-key-balanced-national-policy ; and Aratani, Yumiko, Michelle Chau, Vanessa Wight, and Sophia Addy, Rent Burden, Housing Subsidies and the Well-being of Children and Youth (New York: National Center for Children in Poverty [NCCP], 2011), http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1043.html.
26 Cohen et al., Rental Housing Affordability; Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF ; and Galvez et al., Housing as a Safety Net, https://www.urban.org/research/publication/housing-safety-net .
27 Gubits, Daniel, Marybeth Shinn, Michelle Wood, Stephen Bell, Samuel Dastrup, Claudia D. Solari, Scott R. Brown, Debi McInnis, Tom McCall, and Utsav Kattel, The Family Options Study (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD], Office of Policy Development and Research [OPDR], 2016), https://www.huduser.gov/portal/family_options_study.html .
28 Aratani et al., Rent Burden, Housing Subsidies and the Well-being of Children and Youth, http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1043.html .
29 HUD, Barriers to Success: Housing Insecurity for U.S. College Students (Washington, DC: HUD, OPDR, 2015), https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/insight/insight_2.pdf; and Tach, L., S. Jacoby, D. Wiebe, T. Guerra, and T. Richmond, “The Effect of Microneighborhood Conditions on Adult Educational Attainment in a Subsidized Housing Intervention,” Housing Policy Debate 26, no. 2 (2016): 380–397, doi:10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118 .
30 JCHS, America’s Rental Housing, https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/research-areas/reports/americas-rental-housing-key-balanced-national-policy .
31 Andersson, Fredrik, John Haltiwanger, Mark Kutzback, Giordano Palloni, Henry Pollakowski, and Daniel Weinberg, Living in Public Housing Leads to Better Economic Outcomes as Adults (Chicago: MacArthur Foundation, How Housing Matters, 2017), https://www.macfound.org/media/files/HHM_Brief-_Public_Housing_Better_Economic_Outcomes.pdf .
Reduced Crowding
Description: Although the definition of “crowding” may vary by culture and preference, crowding often is defined as more than 1.5 persons per room living in a housing unit.32 Residential crowding frequently is a response to housing cost burden, because families may need to choose between crowded living conditions and unaffordable housing costs, or they may be forced to move in with others following an unexpected move or eviction.33 In some cases, crowding can be associated with multigenerational households and/or households in which large extended families live together in one home. Living in a crowded home with limited space and limited privacy can affect residents’ physical and mental health, as well as educational performance and long-term economic stability.
Examples of Interventions: Crowding frequently is a symptom of housing cost burden, because households who struggle to pay rent are more likely to share living space to save on housing costs. The provision of affordable housing alleviates this financial pressure and can help to reduce residential crowding. Affordable or public housing developments may offer larger unit sizes to accommodate larger or multigenerational families. Reducing crowding through affordable housing promotes stronger health and education outcomes for students and adults in a household.
Connection to Education: Living in a crowded home presents numerous challenges for children and families, and studies have shown a connection between crowded living conditions and poor academic performance. A crowded home can mean limited quiet space for students to do homework and the presence of noise or other disruptions that prevent students from getting appropriate sleep.34 These conditions can translate into poor academic performance, the need to repeat grades in school, and behavioral or cognitive issues.35 For elementary students, crowded living conditions have been associated with lower reading and math scores,36 and high school students in crowded living conditions have been found to be less likely to graduate from high school on time and tend to have lower educational attainment at age 25.37
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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The number and percentage of families living in overcrowded units |
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Average household size |
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Percentage of occupied units that are crowded or overcrowded |
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Percentage of households that include multiple families or unrelated individuals |
32 Myers, D., W. C. Baer, and Seong-Young Choi, “The Changing Problem of Overcrowded Housing,” Journal of the American Planning Association 62, no. 1 (1996): 66–84; and Solari, C. D., and R. D. Mare, R. D., “Housing Crowding Effects on Children’s Well-being,” Social Science Research 41, no. 2 (2012): 464–476, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01944369608975671.
33 Cohen et al., Rental Housing Affordability.
34 Saegert, S., and G. W. Evans. “Poverty, Housing Niches, and Health in the United States,” Journal of Social Issues 59, no. 3 (2003): 569–589, https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-06776-003.
35 Brown, E. D., and C. M. Low, “Chaotic Living Conditions and Sleep Problems Associated with Children’s Responses to Academic Challenge,” Journal of Family Psychology 22, no. 6 (2008): 920; Fischer, Housing Vouchers Reduce Hardship, https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/research-shows-housing-vouchers-reduce-hardship-and-provide-platform-for-long-term; Goux, D., and E. Maurin, “The Effect of Overcrowded Housing on Children’s Performance at School,” Journal of Public Economics 89, no. 5–6 (2005): 797–819; and Saegert and Evans, “Poverty, Housing Niches, and Health,” https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-06776-003.
36 Fischer, Housing Vouchers Reduce Hardship, https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/research-shows-housing-vouchers-reduce-hardship-and-provide-platform-for-long-term.
37 Conley, D. S. F., “A Room with a View or a Room of One’s Own? Housing and Social Stratification,” Sociological Forum 16 (2001): 263–280, https://www.jstor.org/stable/685065?seq=1; and Lopoo, L. M., and A. S. London, “Household Crowding During Childhood and Long-Term Education Outcomes,” Demography 53, no. 3 (2016): 699–721, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13524-016-0467-9.
HOUSING OUTCOME: NEIGHBORHOOD CONTEXT
Neighborhood Context recognizes the unique impact of the quality, affordability and location of a person’s housing on their ability to access resources and opportunities. When quality and affordable housing is located in proximity to neighborhood amenities, this platform can provide access to quality schools, jobs and numerous other benefits.
Common Indicators of Neighborhood Context Include: Expand AllCollapse All
Access to Neighborhood Amenities and Resources
Description: The neighborhoods people live in heavily influence their access to education, healthy food options, libraries, transportation, job centers, health care services, green space and other important resources. Many high-poverty, racially segregated neighborhoods lack these amenities and resources, limiting access to opportunity and shaping long-term outcomes, particularly for children. As a result, families with low incomes and few housing options often are confined to underresourced neighborhoods. In contrast, families living in safe, well-resourced neighborhoods are better positioned for long-term success.
Examples of Interventions: Community development efforts, including the provision of affordable housing, bring needed investment to communities that lack access to opportunity. Investment in neighborhood resources and amenities — such as grocery stores, schools, parks and employment centers— is a valuable mechanism for connecting residents with important elements of opportunity. In addition to channeling resources to under-invested areas, another approach is to ensure that affordable housing is made available in well-resourced communities through new affordable housing investments or the provision of housing vouchers. When households are able to find housing options in higher opportunity neighborhoods, they may be better able to send their children to higher performing schools, have easier access to such amenities as green space or public transportation, and maintain stable employment.
Connection to Education: There is a strong link between the neighborhood in which a child grows up and the child’s long-term educational and economic outcomes.38 Living in a neighborhood with fewer amenities and resources can stunt academic performance, limit post-secondary enrollment and degree completion, and ultimately diminish economic success for individuals and families with low incomes.39,40 Research shows that adults’ educational attainment and earnings correlate directly with conditions in the neighborhood in which they grew up.
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Neighborhood conditions across multiple data points using the |
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Percentage of workers who commute using public transportation |
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Percentage of households that have access to a vehicle |
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Average travel time to work |
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Percentage of workers who commute for more than one hour |
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Access to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) retailers |
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Neighborhood walkability |
38 Keene, D., M. Bader, and J. Ailshire, “Length of Residence and Social Integration: The Contingent Effects of Neighborhood Poverty,” Health & Place 21 (2013): 171–178, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.02.002.
39 Chetty, Raj, and Nathaniel Hendren, The Impacts of Neighborhoods on Intergenerational Mobility: Childhood Exposure Effects and County-Level Estimates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University and NBER, 2015), https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/hendren/files/nbhds_paper.pdf ; and Keene et al., “Length of Residence and Social Integration: The Contingent Effects of Neighborhood Poverty,” doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.02.002.
40 Tach et al., “The Effect of Microneighborhood Conditions on Adult Educational Attainment,” doi:10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118.
Neighborhood Safety
Description: Safety is an important neighborhood characteristic that can have a strong influence on resident outcomes. Families who have low incomes and few housing options and are confined to neighborhoods with high rates of crime, violence or traffic fatalities can suffer negative mental and physical health outcomes, as well as negative educational outcomes. In contrast, families living in a safe and well-resourced neighborhood are better positioned for long-term success.
Examples of Interventions: Neighborhood safety, or the perception of safety, is closely tied to overall neighborhood conditions and visible community investments. Ongoing community development efforts and neighborhood safety initiatives that address community-identified needs can help improve neighborhood conditions and perceptions of safety. Programs might include violence-reduction campaigns; coaching and mentorship programs for youth; community policing initiatives; and infrastructure improvements, such as streetlights, or sidewalk and road upgrades.
Connection to Education: Exposure to neighborhood violence can disrupt academic progress and negatively impact school performance among students of all ages.41 For example, one study found that students who lived close to a recent homicide performed worse on cognitive testing shortly thereafter.42 The stress and negative impact of neighborhood violence also is associated with reduced high school graduation rates43 and diminished pursuit and completion of a post-secondary education.44
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Number of violent crime incidents within a half mile of a student’s home |
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Housing vacancy rate |
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Adverse childhood experiences |
|
41 Browning, C., L. Burrington, T. Leventhal, and J. Brooks-Gunn, “Neighborhood Structural Inequality, Collective Efficacy, and Sexual Risk Behavior Among Urban Youth, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 49, no. 3 (2008): 269–285; and Harding, D., “Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects: The Effect of Neighborhood Poverty on Dropping Out and Teenage Pregnancy,” American Journal of Sociology 109, no. 3 (2003): 676–719, doi:10.1086/379217.
42 Sharkey, P., “The Acute Effect of Local Homicides on Children’s Cognitive Performance,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 11733–11738.
43 Harding, “Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects,” doi:10.1086/379217.
44 Tach et al., “The Effect of Microneighborhood Conditions on Adult Educational Attainment,” doi:10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118.
HOUSING OUTCOME: HOUSING THAT BUILDS ASSETS & WEALTH
Housing that builds assets and wealth contributes to household members’ ability to deploy resources to meet their needs and achieve their goals. With access to assets and wealth, households can manage both expected and unexpected repairs or pursue educational or entrepreneurial goals.
Common Indicators of Housing that Builds Assets and Wealth Include: Expand AllCollapse All
Access to Home Equity
Description: Access to equity through homeownership is an important housing outcome that can contribute to mobility from poverty and lifelong positive economic outcomes. The ability to access home equity enables families to remain stably housed and can contribute to long-term asset building that supports future generations in their pursuit of education and overall economic mobility.
Although homeownership offers many benefits, it is not a silver bullet, because a third of homeowners with low incomes report difficulty meeting their basic needs.45 Additionally, federal housing policies and a legacy of structural racism have created historical barriers to homeownership for households of color that persist today. Disparities between Black and white homeownership can be seen both in the rate of homeownership and in average home value.46 The devaluation of land in predominantly Black neighborhoods introduces an additional obstacle to wealth accumulation, which translates to fewer opportunities to build wealth, pass down financial resources or make investments in educational opportunities, such as college tuition.
Examples of Interventions: Access to home equity may be achieved through traditional homeownership or pursued through alternative financing and ownership models that promote housing and financial stability through access to equity. Community land trusts and co-ops are two alternative homeownership models that offer shared equity ownership opportunities to qualifying homebuyers. To keep the properties affordable, land or common areas may be held in common ownership, and resale prices may be restricted. Although these models have been adopted widely for their success in enabling affordable homeownership and neighborhood stability, the opportunity to build financial assets using these models may be more limited than through traditional homeownership.47 For more information on support for homebuyers with low incomes and to learn more about shared equity models, see the Housing 101 in Appendix A.
Connection to Education: As noted, access to equity through homeownership can have long-lasting positive outcomes on families, particularly children. Families who own their homes are more likely to live in quality housing that contributes to children’s overall health, well-being and success in school.48 Ownership also correlates with increased housing stability and fewer school changes, making students less prone to absenteeism, behavioral problems and poor academic performance.49 Although homeownership is connected to higher-than-average wealth, other programs that help families with low incomes build equity also have been shown to create positive financial outcomes for future generations. These are described in greater detail in the next outcome to be discussed, Credit and Asset Building.
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Homeownership rate |
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Mortgage originations in a census tract |
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Homeownership by race/ethnicity |
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Presence of a community land trust |
45 Payton Scally, Corianne, and Dulce Gonzalez, Homeowner and Renter Experiences of Material Hardship: Implications for the Safety Net (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2018), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/homeowner-and-renter-experiences-material-hardship.
46 Goodman, Laurie, and Christopher Mayer, “Homeownership is Still Financially Better Than Renting,” Urban Wire: Housing and Housing Finance, February 21, 2018, https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/homeownership-still-financially-better-renting; Perry, Andre, Jonathan Rothwell, and David Harshbarger, The Devaluation of Assets in Black Neighborhoods: The Case of Residential Property (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 2018), https://www.brookings.edu/research/devaluation-of-assets-in-black-neighborhoods; and “Nine Charts About Wealth Inequality in America,” The Urban Institute, last updated October 5, 2017, http://apps.urban.org/features/wealth-inequality-charts.
47 Perry et al., The Devaluation of Assets in Black Neighborhoods, https://www.brookings.edu/research/devaluation-of-assets-in-black-neighborhoods.
48 Cohen et al., Rental Housing Affordability; and Ganesh, Bhargavi, Corianne Payton Scally, Laura Skopec, and Jun Zhu, The Relationship Between Housing and Asthma Among School-Age Children: Analysis of the 2015 American Housing Survey (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, 2017), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/relationship-between-housing-and-asthma-among-school-age-children.
49 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF; and Gubits et al., “What Interventions Work Best for Families? doi:10.1002/pam.22071.
Credit and Asset Building
Description: Building assets and improving credit fosters financial security and resiliency for families, positioning them to better manage expenses and make larger investments. The financial stability brought about through credit and asset building can enable families to put money toward educational and enrichment activities, improving long-term outcomes for children.
Examples of Interventions: Although homeownership is one of the most commonly known ways to build assets, other programs offer the opportunity for renters with low incomes to build credit and accumulate assets for long-term financial stability. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development offers asset-building programs for low-income renters through the Jobs Plus program and the Family Self-Sufficiency program. Both programs minimize or limit statutory rent increases as a household’s income increases, allowing families to save money while maintaining their subsidized housing, even as their income grows.50 Both these programs have been proven to have a lasting impact on employment and earnings among participating households.51 Additionally, many programs and services, such as nonprofit financial or credit counseling, are designed to help households with low incomes build the credit necessary to reduce the cost of debt and take advantage of other financial opportunities.
Connection to Education: Like homeownership, credit and asset building programs can help stabilize a household’s finances, leading to positive economic and employment outcomes. Financial stability improves overall family stability, reduces the frequency of moves, and enables a household to secure higher-quality housing in neighborhoods with greater access to opportunity, which, in turn, significantly influences children’s academic performance and long-term employment and economic outcomes.
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EXAMPLE METRICS |
RECOMMENDED DATA SOURCES |
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Homeownership rate |
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Homeownership by race/ethnicity |
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Presence of a community land trust |
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Housing tenure |
|
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Housing tenure by race/ethnicity |
50 Lubell, Jeffrey, Implications for Policy and Practice of New Research on an Asset-Building Model for FSS (Washington, DC: Abt Associates, 2018), https://www.abtassociates.com/node/37464.
51 Bloom, Howard, James Riccio, and Nandita Verma, Promoting Work in Public Housing: The Effectiveness of Jobs-Plus (New York: MDRC, 2005). https://www.mdrc.org/publication/promoting-work-public-housing; and Dastrup, Samuel, Lesley Freiman, Jeffrey Lubell, Micah Villarreal, and Daniel Weiss, Interim Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Compass Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) Program (Washington, DC: Abt Associates, 2017), https://www.abtassociates.com/insights/publications/report/interim-cost-benefit-analysis-of-the-compass-family-self-sufficiency.
REFERENCES: APPENDIX C
1 U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH), Key Federal Terms and Definitions of Homelessness Among Youth (Washington, DC: USICH, February 2018), https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/Federal-Definitions-of-Youth-Homelessness.pdf
2 Gubits, D., M. Shinn, M. Wood, S. R. Brown, S. R. Dastrup, and S. H. Bell, “What Interventions Work Best for Families Who Experience Homelessness? Impact Estimates from the Family Options Study,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 37, no. 4 (2018): 835–866, doi:10.1002/pam.22071, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pam.22071.
3 Buckner, J. C., “Understanding the Impact of Homelessness on Children: Challenges and Future Research Directions,” American Behavioral Scientist 51, no. 6 (2008): 721–736,https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764207311984.
4 Obradovic, J., J. Long, J. Cutuli, C.-K. Chan, E. Hinz, D. Heistad, and A. S. Masten, “Academic Achievement of Homeless and Highly Mobile Children in an Urban School District: Longitudinal Evidence on Risk, Growth, and Resilience,” Development and Psychopathology 21, no. 2 (2009): 493–518, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/academic-achievement-of-homeless-and-highly-mobile-children-in-an-urban-school-district-longitudinal-evidence-on-risk-growth-and-resilience/104325993972A5A7C9907EE9D7DFEE64
5 Fischer, Will, Research Shows Housing Vouchers Reduce Hardship and Provide Platform for Long-Term Gains Among Children (Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities [CBPP], Updated October 7, 2015), https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/research-shows-housing-vouchers-reduce-hardship-and-provide-platform-for-long-term.
6 Freeman, Lance, and Darrick Hamilton, A Count of Homeless Youth in New York (New York: Empire State Coalition of Youth and Family Services, 2008).
7 Freeman and Hamilton, A Count of Homeless Youth in New York.
8 Walton, G. M., and G. L. Cohen, G. L., “A Question of Belonging: Race, Social Fit, and Achievement,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92, no. 1 (2007): 82–96, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82, https://content.apa.org/record/2006-23056-007
9 Gubits et al., “What Interventions Work Best for Families?” doi:10.1002/pam.22071.
10 Cunningham, Mary, and Graham MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education Among Low-Income Children (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, 2012), https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDFand Grigg, J., “School Enrollment Changes and Student Achievement Growth: A Case Study in Educational Continuity,” Sociology of Education, 85, no. 4 (2012): 388–404, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0038040712441374
11 Herbers, J., A. Reynolds, and C.-C. Chen, “School Mobility and Developmental Outcomes in Young Adulthood,” Development and Psychopathology 25, no. 2 (2013): 501–515, doi:10.1017/S0954579412001204, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236579772_School_Mobility_and_Developmental_Outcomes_in_Young_Adulthood
12 Desmond, Matthew, Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City (New York: Broadway Books, 2016).
13 National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. 2010. Student Mobility: Exploring the Impacts of Frequent Moves on Achievement: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12853/student-mobility-exploring-the-impacts-of-frequent-moves-on-achievement
14 Desmond, Evicted.
15 Cohen, Rebecca, Keith Wardrip, and Laura Williams, Rental Housing Affordability — A Review of Current Research (New York: The Center for Housing Policy, 2010).
16 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF
17 Coulton, Claudia, Robert Fischer, Francisca García-Cobián, Richter Seok-Joo Kim, and Youngmin Cho, Housing Crisis Leaves Lasting Imprint on Children in Cleveland (Chicago: MacArthur Foundation, How Housing Matters, 2016), https://www.macfound.org/media/files/HHM_Brief_-_Housing_Crisis_Children_in_Cleveland.pdf
18 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF
19 Abdi, Fadumo M., and Kristine Andrews, “Redlining Has Left Many Communities of Color Exposed to Lead,” Child Trends, February 13, 2018, https://www.childtrends.org/redlining-left-many-communities-color-exposed-lead
20 Ahrens, K., B. Haley, L. Rossen, P. Lloyd, and Y. Aoki, “Housing Assistance and Blood Lead Levels: Children in the United States, 2005–2012,” American Journal of Public Health 106, no. 11 (2016): 2049–2056, doi:10.2105/AJPH.2016.303432.
21 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education.
22 Williamson, I., C. Martin, G. McGill, R. Monie, and A. Fennerty, “Damp Housing and Asthma: A Case-Control Study,” Thorax 52, no. 3 (1997): 229–234, doi:10.1136%2Fthx.52.3.229; Howell, E., L. Harris, and S. Popkin, “The Health Status of HOPE VI Public Housing Residents,” Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 16, no. 2 (2005): 273–285, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15937391Chambers, E., M. Pichardo, and E. Rosenbaum, “Sleep and the Housing and Neighborhood Environment of Urban Latino Adults Living in Low-Income Housing: The AHOME Study,” Behavioral Sleep Medicine 14, no. 2 (2014): 169–184, doi:10.1080/15402002.2014. 974180; Collins, K. J., “Low Indoor Temperatures and Morbidity in the Elderly,” Age and Ageing 15, no. 4 (1986): 212–220, doi:10.1093/ageing/15.4.212; and Rollings, K., N. Wells, G. Evans, A. Bednarz, and Y. Yang, “Housing and Neighborhood Physical Quality: Children’s Mental Health and Motivation,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 50 (2017): 17–23, doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.01.004.
23 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDF
24 Coulton et al., Housing Crisis Leaves Lasting Imprint, https://www.macfound.org/media/files/HHM_Brief_-_Housing_Crisis_Children_in_Cleveland.pdf
25 Galvez, Martha, Maya Brennan, Brady Mexell, and Rolf Pendall, Housing as a Safety Net: Ensuring Housing Security for the Most Vulnerable (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, September 30, 2017), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/housing-safety-netJoint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University (JCHS), America’s Rental Housing: The Key to a Balanced National Policy (Cambridge: JCHS, 2008), https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/research-areas/reports/americas-rental-housing-key-balanced-national-policyand Aratani, Yumiko, Michelle Chau, Vanessa Wight, and Sophia Addy, Rent Burden, Housing Subsidies and the Well-being of Children and Youth (New York: National Center for Children in Poverty [NCCP], 2011), http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1043.html
26 Cohen et al., Rental Housing Affordability; Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDFand Galvez et al., Housing as a Safety Net, https://www.urban.org/research/publication/housing-safety-net
27 Gubits, Daniel, Marybeth Shinn, Michelle Wood, Stephen Bell, Samuel Dastrup, Claudia D. Solari, Scott R. Brown, Debi McInnis, Tom McCall, and Utsav Kattel, The Family Options Study (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD], Office of Policy Development and Research [OPDR], 2016), https://www.huduser.gov/portal/family_options_study.html
28 Aratani et al., Rent Burden, Housing Subsidies and the Well-being of Children and Youth, http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1043.html
29 HUD, Barriers to Success: Housing Insecurity for U.S. College Students (Washington, DC: HUD, OPDR, 2015), https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/insight/insight_2.pdfand Tach, L., S. Jacoby, D. Wiebe, T. Guerra, and T. Richmond, “The Effect of Microneighborhood Conditions on Adult Educational Attainment in a Subsidized Housing Intervention,” Housing Policy Debate 26, no. 2 (2016): 380–397, doi:10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118
30 JCHS, America’s Rental Housing, https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/research-areas/reports/americas-rental-housing-key-balanced-national-policy
31 Andersson, Fredrik, John Haltiwanger, Mark Kutzback, Giordano Palloni, Henry Pollakowski, and Daniel Weinberg, Living in Public Housing Leads to Better Economic Outcomes as Adults (Chicago: MacArthur Foundation, How Housing Matters, 2017), https://www.macfound.org/media/files/HHM_Brief-_Public_Housing_Better_Economic_Outcomes.pdf
32 Myers, D., W. C. Baer, and Seong-Young Choi, “The Changing Problem of Overcrowded Housing,” Journal of the American Planning Association 62, no. 1 (1996): 66–84; and Solari, C. D., and R. D. Mare, R. D., “Housing Crowding Effects on Children’s Well-being,” Social Science Research 41, no. 2 (2012): 464–476, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01944369608975671
33 Cohen et al., Rental Housing Affordability.
34 Saegert, S., and G. W. Evans. “Poverty, Housing Niches, and Health in the United States,” Journal of Social Issues 59, no. 3 (2003): 569–589, https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-06776-003
35 Brown, E. D., and C. M. Low, “Chaotic Living Conditions and Sleep Problems Associated with Children’s Responses to Academic Challenge,” Journal of Family Psychology 22, no. 6 (2008): 920; Fischer, Housing Vouchers Reduce Hardship, https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/research-shows-housing-vouchers-reduce-hardship-and-provide-platform-for-long-termGoux, D., and E. Maurin, “The Effect of Overcrowded Housing on Children’s Performance at School,” Journal of Public Economics 89, no. 5–6 (2005): 797–819; and Saegert and Evans, “Poverty, Housing Niches, and Health,” https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-06776-003
36 Fischer, Housing Vouchers Reduce Hardship, https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/research-shows-housing-vouchers-reduce-hardship-and-provide-platform-for-long-term
37 Conley, D. S. F., “A Room with a View or a Room of One’s Own? Housing and Social Stratification,” Sociological Forum 16 (2001): 263–280, https://www.jstor.org/stable/685065?seq=1and Lopoo, L. M., and A. S. London, “Household Crowding During Childhood and Long-Term Education Outcomes,” Demography 53, no. 3 (2016): 699–721, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13524-016-0467-9
38 Keene, D., M. Bader, and J. Ailshire, “Length of Residence and Social Integration: The Contingent Effects of Neighborhood Poverty,” Health & Place 21 (2013): 171–178, doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.02.002.
39 Chetty, Raj, and Nathaniel Hendren, The Impacts of Neighborhoods on Intergenerational Mobility: Childhood Exposure Effects and County-Level Estimates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University and NBER, 2015), https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/hendren/files/nbhds_paper.pdfand Keene et al., “Length of Residence and Social Integration: The Contingent Effects of Neighborhood Poverty,” doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.02.002.
40 Tach et al., “The Effect of Microneighborhood Conditions on Adult Educational Attainment,” doi:10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118.
41 Browning, C., L. Burrington, T. Leventhal, and J. Brooks-Gunn, “Neighborhood Structural Inequality, Collective Efficacy, and Sexual Risk Behavior Among Urban Youth, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 49, no. 3 (2008): 269–285; and Harding, D., “Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects: The Effect of Neighborhood Poverty on Dropping Out and Teenage Pregnancy,” American Journal of Sociology 109, no. 3 (2003): 676–719, doi:10.1086/379217.
42 Sharkey, P., “The Acute Effect of Local Homicides on Children’s Cognitive Performance,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 11733–11738.
43 Harding, “Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects,” doi:10.1086/379217.
44 Tach et al., “The Effect of Microneighborhood Conditions on Adult Educational Attainment,” doi:10.1080/10511482.2015.1107118.
45 Payton Scally, Corianne, and Dulce Gonzalez, Homeowner and Renter Experiences of Material Hardship: Implications for the Safety Net (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2018), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/homeowner-and-renter-experiences-material-hardship
46 Goodman, Laurie, and Christopher Mayer, “Homeownership is Still Financially Better Than Renting,” Urban Wire: Housing and Housing Finance, February 21, 2018, https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/homeownership-still-financially-better-rentingPerry, Andre, Jonathan Rothwell, and David Harshbarger, The Devaluation of Assets in Black Neighborhoods: The Case of Residential Property (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 2018), https://www.brookings.edu/research/devaluation-of-assets-in-black-neighborhoodsand “Nine Charts About Wealth Inequality in America,” The Urban Institute, last updated October 5, 2017, http://apps.urban.org/features/wealth-inequality-charts
47 Perry et al., The Devaluation of Assets in Black Neighborhoods, https://www.brookings.edu/research/devaluation-of-assets-in-black-neighborhoods
48 Cohen et al., Rental Housing Affordability; and Ganesh, Bhargavi, Corianne Payton Scally, Laura Skopec, and Jun Zhu, The Relationship Between Housing and Asthma Among School-Age Children: Analysis of the 2015 American Housing Survey (Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, 2017), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/relationship-between-housing-and-asthma-among-school-age-children
49 Cunningham and MacDonald, Housing as a Platform for Improving Education, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/25331/412554-Housing-as-a-Platform-for-Improving-Education-Outcomes-among-Low-Income-Children.PDFand Gubits et al., “What Interventions Work Best for Families? doi:10.1002/pam.22071.
50 Lubell, Jeffrey, Implications for Policy and Practice of New Research on an Asset-Building Model for FSS (Washington, DC: Abt Associates, 2018), https://www.abtassociates.com/node/37464
51 Bloom, Howard, James Riccio, and Nandita Verma, Promoting Work in Public Housing: The Effectiveness of Jobs-Plus (New York: MDRC, 2005). https://www.mdrc.org/publication/promoting-work-public-housingand Dastrup, Samuel, Lesley Freiman, Jeffrey Lubell, Micah Villarreal, and Daniel Weiss, Interim Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Compass Family Self-Sufficiency (FSS) Program (Washington, DC: Abt Associates, 2017), https://www.abtassociates.com/insights/publications/report/interim-cost-benefit-analysis-of-the-compass-family-self-sufficiency