Description: Kindergarten readiness affects future academic achievement and life success. Children develop fundamental skills and responses in early childhood that build a strong foundation for reading, arithmetic and social interactions. Studies show that as a child’s kindergarten readiness scores improve, third-grade reading and math scores rise accordingly.1

Examples of Interventions: To promote early learning, many local programs, often publicly funded or run by nonprofits, offer home visiting programs, free or reduced cost enrollment in child care, or prekindergarten for families with low incomes. Programs like Head Start (described in greater detail in the Education 101 in Appendix B), ensure that children receive access to quality child care, enrichment activities and curricula that prepare them appropriately for kindergarten. The co-location of early learning centers, day care centers, or preschool classrooms in affordable housing or public housing developments is another way to ensure that affordable child care is available to families who otherwise would be unable to afford quality child care or would have difficulty commuting to day care centers in other neighborhoods.

Connection to Housing: The stability and quality of a child’s housing has been shown to have a direct influence on school preparedness, even before the child attends elementary school. Chronic instability early in a child’s life has a negative impact on vocabulary development among preschool children,2 and low-quality housing has been tied to lower kindergarten readiness scores.3 Low-quality housing also has been tied to higher incidences of child abuse and neglect. When families with children have access to stable, quality housing, children are better able to develop the early learning skills and abilities that will prepare them well for kindergarten and beyond. This is true particularly when affordable or public housing also includes on-site child care or early learning programs, as described in the interventions above.

Description: Middle grade math has become an important milestone for high school persistence, academic achievement, college attainment and readiness for the workforce. Research indicates that students who successfully complete middle grade math perform better in geometry, more advanced algebra, trigonometry and calculus. A child’s math curriculum also has a strong link to college enrollment.9

Examples of Interventions: Much like early grade reading, many youth programs focus specifically on middle grade math skills, whether through after-school programs, summer camps or other tutoring services. Case management for families who experience homelessness may track academic achievement for school-age children and seek opportunities for children to enroll in tutoring or enrichment programs to help keep students at grade level amid the disruption of frequent moves. Emerging partnerships between housing providers and schools or school districts are another way to ensure that quality academic supports are provided during out-of-school time to prepare children for middle grade math achievement, while also tracking academic progress and targeting further support to students and families as needed.

Connection to Housing: Homelessness, mobility and overcrowding all are elements of a child’s housing that impact their performance in middle grade math. Research demonstrates that students experiencing homelessness scored worse on math assessments than students who were eligible for free and reduced price lunches, and their progress in math was slower during their years without stable housing.10 Among children experiencing frequent moves from the third through eighth grades, math scores have been shown to be negatively affected during the time of the move.11 Among children living in more crowded conditions, their math scores, as has been seen with reading scores, were found to decline.12 As with other education outcomes, access to safe, affordable, stable housing can help alleviate many of these negative effects.

Description: High school graduation is important for lifetime earnings, health and social outcomes. Students who graduate from high school have lower rates of unemployment, earn higher wages and have better results on other measures of personal and social welfare, such as health and relationships. Increasing the educational attainment of one generation improves the next generation’s academic and social outcomes.13

Examples of Interventions: With the growing recognition of the importance of a high school diploma for attaining employment and higher wages, many programs and services focus specifically on helping students and adults attain their diploma or equivalency degree. Some school systems offer accelerated high school programs to older secondary students who need more credits to graduate, while many nonprofit organizations offer tutoring and classes for youth and adults for the General Equivalency Diploma tests, or GED. Housing authorities and affordable housing developments also may work with nonprofits to offer GED classes at no cost to their residents.

Connection to Housing: A student’s housing throughout childhood has a profound influence on his or her ability to graduate from high school. Much like the negative impact seen on younger students’ educational performance, homelessness and frequent moves continue to affect older students, making a student more likely to drop out of high school.14 For example, a citywide study in New York City found that less than 50 percent of youth who experience homelessness during high school are able to go on to earn a diploma or GED certificate.15 For students who lived in a crowded household during their high school years, research suggests they are less likely to graduate from high school on time and tend to have lower educational attainment at age 25.16 When students do have access to stable housing and connections to needed services, they face less overall instability and are able to focus on their studies and stay on track to graduate.

Description: Post-secondary enrollment marks a critical transition in the cradle-to-career pipeline. Students of color and those in low-income households are less likely to pursue education beyond high school.17 As more careers require additional preparation, it is critical to ensure access to options and financial aid information for four-year degrees, two-year programs and technical certifications.

Examples of Interventions: Post-secondary enrollment represents an important first step after high school graduation toward earning a college degree or technical certification. To encourage enrollment in higher education, many programs focus on high school students or young adults who may be less likely to seek out opportunities because of their cost or lack of awareness and provide them with information and guidance on post-secondary opportunities and scholarships as early as their junior or senior year of high school. For youth exiting foster care or experiencing homelessness or housing instability, for example, community colleges and universities may offer special programs that include year-round housing, access to emergency funds, and tutoring and counseling services. In this case, housing may be provided by the college or university directly or in partnership with a local housing authority.

Connection to Housing: As previously stated, a student’s or young adult’s neighborhood has a particular impact on their ability to enroll in post- secondary education. When neighborhoods are isolated from social networks and institutions that facilitate school and work aspirations — such as high-performing schools or visible employment opportunities — youth may be less aware of post-secondary opportunities and, therefore, be less likely to enroll.18 Additionally, housing affordability remains a critical barrier to post-secondary enrollment, because students may be unable to afford the costs of housing and tuition while dedicating time to school in addition to or instead of full-time employment. Access to safe, affordable housing can provide the stability needed to encourage enrollment in post-secondary education.

Description: Post-secondary degree completion is more valuable than ever, because degrees and certifications open doors to meaningful jobs and stable futures. Workers with at least a bachelor’s degree can earn more than individuals who have only a high school diploma, and post-secondary attainment also leads to improved health and social outcomes.19 Societal benefits from a more educated population include lower crime rates and more community involvement.20

Examples of Interventions: Much like the importance placed on high school graduation, post-secondary degree completion is increasingly recognized as an important milestone and an area that requires particular support and services for youth and adults with low incomes to narrow the achievement gap. Programs may offer tailored support and subsidies for students enrolled in colleges and universities or may provide preparation for or connections to apprenticeships, trade programs or other opportunities to earn training certificates. As described in the previous outcome of post-secondary degree enrollment, housing subsidies, scholarships and other educational supports also are critical to ensuring that students are able to afford the costs of attendance, remain stably housed, and access the academic support and time needed to focus on their studies so that they can graduate on time.

Connection to Housing: For students with lower incomes enrolled in higher education, housing cost burden often is a major barrier. Students who struggle with housing insecurity frequently are forced to enroll part time, live off campus and work while attending college, factors that may delay or complicate the path to graduation.21 One study showed that stably housed community college students maintained a higher GPA than those with unstable housing and were 40 percent more likely to stay on track to graduate.22 Neighborhood conditions also can impact an individual’s ability to progress through post-secondary training or education. A study conducted in Philadelphia found that, among individuals granted subsidized housing conditional on their enrollment in post-secondary education credits, subsidy recipients living in block groups with higher crime rates completed their credits at a slower rate, which suggests that the stress of living in an unsafe neighborhood may impede a student’s progress.23 In contrast, when families are able to remain stably housed in safe neighborhoods, and are able to build wealth and assets through housing, typically through homeownership, they are able to invest money in education, including tuition and support for children enrolled in post-secondary schools.24

Description: Connecting post-secondary graduates to good jobs is the ultimate goal of the cradle-to-career pipeline. Students who are employed within a year of graduation are on their way to achieving self-sufficiency. When a community’s workforce is fully engaged, the entire community is stronger.

Examples of Interventions: Programs and services geared toward workforce development — such as job training, support for job searches, apprenticeships and support for entrepreneurship — are examples of interventions that aim to connect adults with expanded employment or business opportunities. Organizations that work with children and youth also may employ a “two-generation” approach and work with parents and guardians to help them access stable or better-paying employment. The provision of stable, well-located housing is another intervention that can support employment outcomes, because a fixed address and reliable commute can help individuals secure and maintain work.

Connection to Housing: Overall, the cumulative effects of living in unaffordable and unstable housing in childhood make it much less likely that an individual will attain steady, well-paying employment as an adult. Research suggests that children in low-income households who switch schools frequently tend to obtain jobs with lower earning potential and fewer skill requirements as adults.25 Additionally, when housing instability is experienced as an adult, financial instability often results. For example, one study showed that the likelihood of being laid off is 15 percent higher among workers who have experienced an eviction.26